Managing Knowledge During Partnerships: A Case of Intermediaries in Agricultural Innovation System

"The advent of the Internet and its emerging collaborative web-based tools has assumed a crucial role in both inter- and intra-organizational knowledge management systems."

This paper explores the challenges of knowledge management (KM) - identifying, creating, capturing, sharing, and using knowledge for a common good - within innovation systems, such as agricultural innovation systems, which are systems where a number of diverse actors with different goals engage in the same process. A knowledge gap between the different actors in most agricultural innovation systems (the farmer, the agricultural researcher, and the agricultural extension agent) has led to the emergence of new and multiple intermediaries, such as community-based organisations (CBOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), international development organisations, private sector organisations, information and communication technology (ICT)-enabled institutions, or donor agencies, with the aim of bridging the gap. The main goal of the paper is to show how an effective integration of ICTs into a well-coordinated system of intermediaries could result in an efficient KM system, leading to a reduction in knowledge divide between communities. The paper draws upon 2 theoretical perspectives - the theory of absorptive capacity of organisations (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990) and the emergence of new institutions (Attewell, 1992) - to highlight some of the challenges associated with inter-organisational partnerships without strong coordination.

Benjamin Kwasi Addom begins by offering a literature review, highlighting the shift from the dominant linear model to a distributed, collaborative model within the systemic approach to innovation. The emphasis is on complex relationships and processes that are occurring among multiple agents and social and economic institutions: agricultural knowledge generation in the form of scientific knowledge, farmers' local knowledge, and rural advisory services or extension. There are, however, challenges within these agricultural innovation systems; for example, the two knowledge domains of (i) scientific knowledge from the universities and research institutes and (ii) farmers' local knowledge from the local communities have been working in isolation, with little (if any) cross-fertilisation of ideas. To address this, the next section of the paper brings in a Community Informatics (CI) perspective to link KM to community processes.

CI is an interdisciplinary academic field that considers some of the old ideas about the ways communities and information systems interact through the design of appropriate ICT projects. The field seeks to build understanding of the use of the new digital networks in enabling human activities within physical communities. Within the context of CI, this paper considers community in terms of relations and networks that exist among actors within territorial communities. The paper thus uses 2 theoretical frameworks as a guide to understanding knowledge barriers and how they could be bridged. First, the theory of absorptive capacity looks at the capability of a system to recognise, value, and acquire external knowledge, which is referred to as the potential absorptive capacity (PAC) of a system. The valuing of this new knowledge is not automatic; it needs to be fostered to allow the absorption to begin. This process could be affected by 3 main factors, discussed here: the nature of the knowledge/innovations; the attributes of the seeker; and the attributes of the provider. While one of the objectives of KM is to bridge the gap between tacit and explicit knowledge, the analysis of the 3 factors reveals barriers, such as the fact that, even though the theory of absorptive capacity emphasises building the research and development (R&D) capacity of the knowledge seeker, the environment within agricultural innovation systems, especially in developing nations, may not be conducive for doing that.

The second theoretical view thus looks at the option of employing a third party. Attewell (1992) argues that in response to knowledge barriers, new institutions come into existence that progressively lower those barriers and make it easier for firms to adopt and use technology without extensive in-house expertise. While Addom believes that the presence of intermediaries within agricultural innovation systems is critical, he next discusses the current chaotic nature among the intermediaries (i.e., absence of coordination, leading to fragmentation or even confusion) by introducing a framework that has the potential to streamline their functions. The paper lays out an application of a theoretical construct or framework to the reduction of knowledge gaps through coordination of roles. The knowledge brokering role (KBR) framework or construct described here was developed from a study conducted by the author of this paper in 2009 to address the existing knowledge gaps identified within an agricultural innovation system in Ghana.

This study has identified 4 main functions of the KBR, which, "if well coordinated among the intermediaries, could lead to an action-oriented knowledge brokering." They include:

1. Demand Articulation Function (DAF), which is "a set of activities to establish a good fit between the existing knowledge of users, their desired knowledge, and the services being delivered by the providers. It begins with an act of listening by demonstrating interest in and understanding of what the knowledge user/generator is saying. It also includes the discipline of staying focused, listening for the main points and the rationale behind what is being said. Demand articulation goes beyond needs assessment and emphasizes the existing potential of the users instead of the barriers....For example, within an agricultural system, intermediaries involved in demand articulation must consider the potentials of the local farmers within their community settings and the agricultural researchers within their institutes to address their own knowledge deficits. What resources exist in these communities/institutes? How do they use the resources to address challenges associated with their agricultural production or research work? What communication patterns exist among them for exchanging ideas? The greatest emphasis has to be laid on this stage to prevent outsiders from prescribing solutions to users' problems."
2. Network Formation Function (NFF), which involves "a set of activities that could help connect and establish working relationships between knowledge users/generators and brokers, and also among these partners. It is about linking demands with supply through well-coordinated networks among the intermediaries....Within agricultural innovation systems for example, local farmers may have a wide range of backgrounds in terms of the types of farming they are engaged in, the corresponding resources for the production of those outputs, and different marketing avenues for their produce among others. It is therefore a mismatch to group all farmers as recipients of information or technologies or innovations through one national agricultural extension service....It is the duty of intermediaries with this function to be able to control access, filter and decide which types of information should flow from one partner to another - gate keeping. It is also about leading, guiding, linking, liaising, directing, providing, connecting, and coordinating activities involved in knowledge exchange among the partners - match-making. And finally their duties may include advocating, lobbying, and drawing attention to new products, processes, technologies that could be useful for the network or partners."
3. Process Management Function (PMF), which is "the set of activities aimed at maintaining and sustaining the working relation created among the actors through network formation in order to optimize conditions for learning."
4. Supply Activation Function (SAF), which is "a set of activities to facilitate the exchange of the final knowledge products among the users and producers....This function is very critical for agricultural innovation systems due to the value of two-way delivery of knowledge resources between the two sources of knowledge generation. Intermediaries with the capacity and skills to perform this function also need to have strong horizontal relations with other functional units as well as vertical networks with the end users of the knowledge products."

Addom argues that KM system approaches that consider ICT-based systems for supporting the creation, capture, storage, and dissemination of information and knowledge within and between systems or organisations could be more resilient. Specific ICTs could be used to facilitate the functions of each of the knowledge brokering functions described above. For example:

• Sample ICTs for DAF - While listening and observing participants in meetings, tools ranging from whiteboard recorders, tape recorders, digital cameras, and palm-size camcorders could be used to capture both voice and data for transcription. In addition, tools such as real-time location sensors and Global Position Systems (GPS) could be used in collaboration with users to capture data for analysis. Tools for advanced preparation and event management and for gathering and managing primary data, cleaning, archiving, and digital mapping are discussed.
• Sample ICTs for NFF - Some of the tools that could support the gate keeping activities among intermediaries for controlling and regulating access to resources or information may include subscriptions, feeds, and syndications such as RSS, XML, bookmarks, and tagging. Communication and networking tools such as Adobe connect, Skype, MS Net meeting, email listservs, and other social media tools connect intermediaries to knowledge generators/users for advocacy and lobbying. Match-making activities also connect, lead, guide, link, and direct users/generators to intermediaries through communication technologies such as presence awareness tools, discussion forum, content management systems, and other social media tools.
• Sample ICTs for PMF - For example, KM systems such as e-learning tools, digital repositories, and software for scheduling events could be used to support activities that help intermediaries to organise their resources to support knowledge generation and use. Collaboration tools such as electronic data collection software, software for data analysis and reporting, content management systems, and wikis for storage and retrieval could be very useful in data management. Secondary knowledge generation that may take place among intermediaries may involve data manipulation; ICTs could be very useful in this through data and information processing technologies such as Spoken Web, DVD, CD, text files, leaflets, and pamphlets.
• Sample ICTs for SAF - Intermediaries performing this function could use face-to-face or the media to create awareness of new knowledge products. Communication and display technologies for signaling new information, technologies, and resources may range from newspapers, radio, television, text/SMS (short messaging service), digital broadcasting, blogs, websites, and other social media tools. Internet or web-based learning tools could also be used to ensure training, teaching, and educating activities that communicate the technical know-how of the new innovations or technologies to the users. Some of the tools may include digital video lectures, content on DVDs/CDs at telecenters, e-learning tools, digital repositories, software for scheduling, etc.

Within the context of CI, the paper identifies some relationships between the 4 functions of the KBR and ICTs. "This idea is based on the argument by Orlikowski and others that the key to successful social processes are essential for supporting technology-enabled group processes and the suggestion by Heeks (2002) that the use of the new information communication technologies for development projects should begin by identifying the development objective of the project, identifying the new and/or reengineered information requirements needed to meet those objectives, and then identifying the role that ICTs and other information-handling technologies have to play in meeting those information requirements. ICTs alone cannot bring in the solution to the knowledge barriers but could play a significant role once the necessary social processes are in place. Thus, after laying the foundation through the knowledge brokering role concept, ICTs could be used to strengthen or facilitate the functions of the partners."